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This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2. Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012. For full details, see the changelog.
See also
PEP 398 - Python 3.3 Release Schedule
New syntax features:
yield from expression for generator delegation.u'unicode' syntax is accepted again for str objects.New library modules:
faulthandler (helps debugging low-level crashes)ipaddress (high-level objects representing IP addresses and masks)lzma (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm)unittest.mock (replace parts of your system under test with mock objects)venv (Python virtual environments, as in the
popular virtualenv package)New built-in features:
Implementation improvements:
importlib.Significantly Improved Library Modules:
Security improvements:
Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.
Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a
system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance. Virtual environments
have their own set of private site packages (i.e. locally-installed
libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site
packages. Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular
virtualenv third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration
with the interpreter core.
This PEP adds the venv module for programmatic access, and the
pyvenv script for command-line access and
administration. The Python interpreter checks for a pyvenv.cfg,
file whose existence signals the base of a virtual environment’s directory
tree.
See also
Native support for package directories that don’t require __init__.py
marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired by
various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in
PEP 420)
See also
The implementation of PEP 3118 has been significantly improved.
The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer struct that led to multiple crash reports. Additionally, several functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous or multi-dimensional input have been fixed.
The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that checks the consumer’s request type. Many new features have been added, most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and arrays with suboffsets.
The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out responsibilities for both exporters and consumers. Buffer request flags are grouped into basic and compound flags. The memory layout of non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained.
None.(Contributed by Stefan Krah in bpo-10181.)
See also
PEP 3118 - Revising the Buffer Protocol
The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string. This allows a space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full UCS-4 on all systems. For compatibility with existing APIs, several representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility should be phased out.
On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change.
On the C API side, PEP 393 is fully backward compatible. The legacy API should remain available at least five years. Applications using the legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse - may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient storage).
Changes introduced by PEP 393 are the following:
U+0000 to U+10FFFF). The distinction between
narrow and wide builds no longer exists and Python now behaves like a wide
build, even under Windows.len() now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters,
so len('\U0010FFFF') == 1;'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF';'\U0010FFFF'[0] now returns '\U0010FFFF' and not '\uDBFF';sys.maxunicode is now always 1114111 (0x10FFFF
in hexadecimal). The PyUnicode_GetMax() function still returns
either 0xFFFF or 0x10FFFF for backward compatibility, and it should
not be used with the new Unicode API (see bpo-13054)../configure flag --with-wide-unicode has been removed.The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in the string:
U+0000-U+00FF) use 1 byte per code point;U+0000-U+FFFF) use 2 bytes per code point;U+10000-U+10FFFF) use 4 bytes per code point.The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.). We also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache efficiency on non-trivial applications. The memory usage of Python 3.3 is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details).
See also
The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a py launcher application
that can be used to launch Python applications in a version independent
fashion.
This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking *.py files.
If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version
will be used to run the file. If multiple versions are installed, the most
recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by including
a Unix-style “shebang line” in the Python script.
The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the py
application. Running py follows the same version selection rules as
implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be selected
by passing appropriate arguments (such as -3 to request Python 3 when
Python 2 is also installed, or -2.6 to specifclly request an earlier
Python version when a more recent version is installed).
In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561.)
See also
Launcher documentation: launcher
Installer PATH modification: windows-path-mod
The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now both simplified and finer-grained.
You don’t have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception
type between OSError, IOError, EnvironmentError,
WindowsError, mmap.error, socket.error or
select.error. All these exception types are now only one:
OSError. The other names are kept as aliases for compatibility
reasons.
Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition. Instead of
inspecting the errno attribute (or args[0]) for a particular
constant from the errno module, you can catch the adequate
OSError subclass. The available subclasses are the following:
BlockingIOErrorChildProcessErrorConnectionErrorFileExistsErrorFileNotFoundErrorInterruptedErrorIsADirectoryErrorNotADirectoryErrorPermissionErrorProcessLookupErrorTimeoutErrorAnd the ConnectionError itself has finer-grained subclasses:
Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the errno can now be
avoided. For example, the following code written for Python 3.2:
from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM
try:
with open("document.txt") as f:
content = f.read()
except IOError as err:
if err.errno == ENOENT:
print("document.txt file is missing")
elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM):
print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
else:
raise
can now be written without the errno import and without manual
inspection of exception attributes:
try:
with open("document.txt") as f:
content = f.read()
except FileNotFoundError:
print("document.txt file is missing")
except PermissionError:
print("You are not allowed to read document.txt")
See also
PEP 380 adds the yield from expression, allowing a generator to
delegate
part of its operations to another generator. This allows a section of code
containing yield to be factored out and placed in another generator.
Additionally, the subgenerator is allowed to return with a value, and the
value is made available to the delegating generator.
While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the yield
from expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary subiterators.
For simple iterators, yield from iterable is essentially just a shortened
form of for item in iterable: yield item:
>>> def g(x):
... yield from range(x, 0, -1)
... yield from range(x)
...
>>> list(g(5))
[5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
However, unlike an ordinary loop, yield from allows subgenerators to
receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and
return a final value to the outer generator:
>>> def accumulate():
... tally = 0
... while 1:
... next = yield
... if next is None:
... return tally
... tally += next
...
>>> def gather_tallies(tallies):
... while 1:
... tally = yield from accumulate()
... tallies.append(tally)
...
>>> tallies = []
>>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies)
>>> next(acc) # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values
>>> for i in range(4):
... acc.send(i)
...
>>> acc.send(None) # Finish the first tally
>>> for i in range(5):
... acc.send(i)
...
>>> acc.send(None) # Finish the second tally
>>> tallies
[6, 10]
The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that are
designed to be used with the send and throw methods to be split into
multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be split into
multiple subfunctions.
See also
PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained exception context to be disabled. This allows cleaner error messages in applications that convert between exception types:
>>> class D:
... def __init__(self, extra):
... self._extra_attributes = extra
... def __getattr__(self, attr):
... try:
... return self._extra_attributes[attr]
... except KeyError:
... raise AttributeError(attr) from None
...
>>> D({}).x
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
AttributeError: x
Without the from None suffix to suppress the cause, the original
exception would be displayed by default:
>>> class C:
... def __init__(self, extra):
... self._extra_attributes = extra
... def __getattr__(self, attr):
... try:
... return self._extra_attributes[attr]
... except KeyError:
... raise AttributeError(attr)
...
>>> C({}).x
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 6, in __getattr__
KeyError: 'x'
During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred:
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module>
File "<stdin>", line 8, in __getattr__
AttributeError: x
No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details):
>>> try:
... D({}).x
... except AttributeError as exc:
... print(repr(exc.__context__))
...
KeyError('x',)
See also
To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python applications
that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once again supports the
“u” prefix for string literals. This prefix has no semantic significance
in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the number of purely mechanical
changes in migrating to Python 3, making it easier for developers to focus on
the more significant semantic changes (such as the stricter default
separation of binary and text data).
See also
Functions and class objects have a new __qualname__ attribute representing
the “path” from the module top-level to their definition. For global functions
and classes, this is the same as __name__. For other functions and classes,
it provides better information about where they were actually defined, and
how they might be accessible from the global scope.
Example with (non-bound) methods:
>>> class C:
... def meth(self):
... pass
>>> C.meth.__name__
'meth'
>>> C.meth.__qualname__
'C.meth'
Example with nested classes:
>>> class C:
... class D:
... def meth(self):
... pass
...
>>> C.D.__name__
'D'
>>> C.D.__qualname__
'C.D'
>>> C.D.meth.__name__
'meth'
>>> C.D.meth.__qualname__
'C.D.meth'
Example with nested functions:
>>> def outer():
... def inner():
... pass
... return inner
...
>>> outer().__name__
'inner'
>>> outer().__qualname__
'outer.<locals>.inner'
The string representation of those objects is also changed to include the new, more precise information:
>>> str(C.D)
"<class '__main__.C.D'>"
>>> str(C.D.meth)
'<function C.D.meth at 0x7f46b9fe31e0>'
See also
Dictionaries used for the storage of objects’ attributes are now able to share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the part which stores the keys and their respective hashes). This reduces the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of non-builtin types.
See also
A new function inspect.signature() makes introspection of python
callables easy and straightforward. A broad range of callables is supported:
python functions, decorated or not, classes, and functools.partial()
objects. New classes inspect.Signature, inspect.Parameter
and inspect.BoundArguments hold information about the call signatures,
such as, annotations, default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments,
which considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates
or amends calling signatures or arguments.
See also
A new attribute on the sys module exposes details specific to the
implementation of the currently running interpreter. The initial set of
attributes on sys.implementation are name, version,
hexversion, and cache_tag.
The intention of sys.implementation is to consolidate into one namespace
the implementation-specific data used by the standard library. This allows
different Python implementations to share a single standard library code base
much more easily. In its initial state, sys.implementation holds only a
small portion of the implementation-specific data. Over time that ratio will
shift in order to make the standard library more portable.
One example of improved standard library portability is cache_tag. As of
Python 3.3, sys.implementation.cache_tag is used by importlib to
support PEP 3147 compliance. Any Python implementation that uses
importlib for its built-in import system may use cache_tag to control
the caching behavior for modules.
The implementation of sys.implementation also introduces a new type to
Python: types.SimpleNamespace. In contrast to a mapping-based
namespace, like dict, SimpleNamespace is attribute-based, like
object. However, unlike object, SimpleNamespace instances
are writable. This means that you can add, remove, and modify the namespace
through normal attribute access.
See also
bpo-2377 - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__
bpo-13959 - Re-implement parts of imp in pure Python
bpo-14605 - Make import machinery explicit
bpo-14646 - Require loaders set __loader__ and __package__
The __import__() function is now powered by importlib.__import__().
This work leads to the completion of “phase 2” of PEP 302. There are
multiple benefits to this change. First, it has allowed for more of the
machinery powering import to be exposed instead of being implicit and hidden
within the C code. It also provides a single implementation for all Python VMs
supporting Python 3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in
import semantics. And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for
future growth to occur.
For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics. For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are covered in the Porting Python code section of this document.
One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into
making the import statement work. That means the various importers that were
once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the importlib package.
The abstract base classes defined in importlib.abc have been expanded
to properly delineate between meta path finders
and path entry finders by introducing
importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder and
importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder, respectively. The old ABC of
importlib.abc.Finder is now only provided for backwards-compatibility
and does not enforce any method requirements.
In terms of finders, importlib.machinery.FileFinder exposes the
mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module. Previously
this class was an implicit member of sys.path_hooks.
For loaders, the new abstract base class importlib.abc.FileLoader helps
write a loader that uses the file system as the storage mechanism for a module’s
code. The loader for source files
(importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader), sourceless bytecode files
(importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader), and extension modules
(importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader) are now available for
direct use.
ImportError now has name and path attributes which are set when
there is relevant data to provide. The message for failed imports will also
provide the full name of the module now instead of just the tail end of the
module’s name.
The importlib.invalidate_caches() function will now call the method with
the same name on all finders cached in sys.path_importer_cache to help
clean up any stored state as necessary.
For potential required changes to code, see the Porting Python code section.
Beyond the expanse of what importlib now exposes, there are other
visible changes to import. The biggest is that sys.meta_path and
sys.path_hooks now store all of the meta path finders and path entry
hooks used by import. Previously the finders were implicit and hidden within
the C code of import instead of being directly exposed. This means that one can
now easily remove or change the order of the various finders to fit one’s needs.
Another change is that all modules have a __loader__ attribute, storing the
loader used to create the module. PEP 302 has been updated to make this
attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in the future once 3rd-party
loaders have been updated people will be able to rely on the existence of the
attribute. Until such time, though, import is setting the module post-load.
Loaders are also now expected to set the __package__ attribute from
PEP 366. Once again, import itself is already setting this on all loaders
from importlib and import itself is setting the attribute post-load.
None is now inserted into sys.path_importer_cache when no finder
can be found on sys.path_hooks. Since imp.NullImporter is not
directly exposed on sys.path_hooks it could no longer be relied upon to
always be available to use as a value representing no finder found.
All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read about in the Porting Python code section of this document.
(Implementation by Brett Cannon)
Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are:
Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences.
Both unicodedata.lookup() and '\N{...}' now resolve name aliases,
and unicodedata.lookup() resolves named sequences too.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-12753.)
Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0
Equality comparisons on range() objects now return a result reflecting
the equality of the underlying sequences generated by those range objects.
(bpo-13201)
The count(), find(), rfind(), index() and rindex()
methods of bytes and bytearray objects now accept an
integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument.
(Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12170.)
The rjust(), ljust(), and center() methods of bytes
and bytearray now accept a bytearray for the fill
argument. (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12380.)
New methods have been added to list and bytearray:
copy() and clear() (bpo-10516). Consequently,
MutableSequence now also defines a
clear() method (bpo-11388).
Raw bytes literals can now be written rb"..." as well as br"...".
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13748.)
dict.setdefault() now does only one lookup for the given key, making
it atomic when used with built-in types.
(Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13521.)
The error messages produced when a function call does not match the function signature have been significantly improved.
(Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.)
Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock.
This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a module
would trigger code execution in a different thread as a side-effect.
Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the
PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock() C API function.
In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock. This correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads (preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while eliminating the aforementioned annoyances.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9260.)
open() gets a new opener parameter: the underlying file descriptor
for the file object is then obtained by calling opener with (file,
flags). It can be used to use custom flags like os.O_CLOEXEC for
example. The 'x' mode was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if
the file already exists.print(): added the flush keyword argument. If the flush keyword
argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed.hash(): hash randomization is enabled by default, see
object.__hash__() and PYTHONHASHSEED.str type gets a new casefold() method: return a
casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be used for caseless
matching. For example, 'ß'.casefold() returns 'ss'.This new debug module faulthandler contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly,
on a fault (a crash like a segmentation fault), after a timeout, or on a user
signal. Call faulthandler.enable() to install fault handlers for the
SIGSEGV, SIGFPE, SIGABRT, SIGBUS, and
SIGILL signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the
PYTHONFAULTHANDLER environment variable or by using -X
faulthandler command line option.
Example of a segmentation fault on Linux:
$ python -q -X faulthandler
>>> import ctypes
>>> ctypes.string_at(0)
Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault
Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700:
File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at
File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module>
Segmentation fault
Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors composed with
abstract methods. The recommended approach to declaring abstract descriptors is
now to provide __isabstractmethod__ as a dynamically updated
property. The built-in descriptors have been updated accordingly.
abc.abstractpropertyhas been deprecated, usepropertywithabc.abstractmethod()instead.abc.abstractclassmethodhas been deprecated, useclassmethodwithabc.abstractmethod()instead.abc.abstractstaticmethodhas been deprecated, usestaticmethodwithabc.abstractmethod()instead.
(Contributed by Darren Dale in bpo-11610.)
abc.ABCMeta.register() now returns the registered subclass, which means
it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868).
The array module supports the long long type using q and
Q type codes.
(Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in bpo-1172711.)
ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of the
base64 modern interface. For example, base64.b64decode('YWJj')
returns b'abc'. (Contributed by Catalin Iacob in bpo-13641.)
In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the a2b_ functions
now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input. (Contributed by Antoine
Pitrou in bpo-13637.)
The bz2 module has been rewritten from scratch. In the process, several
new features have been added:
New bz2.open() function: open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or
text mode.
bz2.BZ2File can now read from and write to arbitrary file-like
objects, by means of its constructor’s fileobj argument.
(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-5863.)
bz2.BZ2File and bz2.decompress() can now decompress
multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the pbzip2 tool).
bz2.BZ2File can now also be used to create this type of file, using
the 'a' (append) mode.
(Contributed by Nir Aides in bpo-1625.)
bz2.BZ2File now implements all of the io.BufferedIOBase API,
except for the detach() and truncate() methods.
The mbcs codec has been rewritten to handle correctly
replace and ignore error handlers on all Windows versions. The
mbcs codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only
replace to encode and ignore to decode.
A new Windows-only codec has been added: cp65001 (bpo-13216). It is the
Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, CP_UTF8). For example, it is used
by sys.stdout if the console output code page is set to cp65001 (e.g., using
chcp 65001 command).
Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster. They only ignore the first
byte of an invalid byte sequence. For example, b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312',
'replace') now returns a \n after the replacement character.
Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their encode() methods. For example:
>>> import codecs
>>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict')
>>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.')
b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.'
This example gives b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.' with older Python
versions.
The unicode_internal codec has been deprecated.
Addition of a new ChainMap class to allow treating a
number of mappings as a single unit. (Written by Raymond Hettinger for
bpo-11089, made public in bpo-11297.)
The abstract base classes have been moved in a new collections.abc
module, to better differentiate between the abstract and the concrete
collections classes. Aliases for ABCs are still present in the
collections module to preserve existing imports. (bpo-11085)
The Counter class now supports the unary + and -
operators, as well as the in-place operators +=, -=, |=, and
&=. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121.)
ExitStack now provides a solid foundation for
programmatic manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup
functionality. Unlike the previous contextlib.nested API (which was
deprecated and removed), the new API is designed to work correctly
regardless of whether context managers acquire their resources in
their __init__ method (for example, file objects) or in their
__enter__ method (for example, synchronisation objects from the
threading module).
Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the mksalt()
function to the crypt module.
- If the
cursesmodule is linked to the ncursesw library, use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed (e.g.waddwstr()), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g.waddstr()).- Use the locale encoding instead of
utf-8to encode Unicode strings.curses.windowhas a newcurses.window.encodingattribute.- The
curses.windowclass has a newget_wch()method to get a wide character- The
cursesmodule has a newunget_wch()function to push a wide character so the nextget_wch()will return it
(Contributed by Iñigo Serna in bpo-6755.)
- Equality comparisons between naive and aware
datetimeinstances now returnFalseinstead of raisingTypeError(bpo-15006).- New
datetime.datetime.timestamp()method: Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to thedatetimeinstance.- The
datetime.datetime.strftime()method supports formatting years older than 1000.- The
datetime.datetime.astimezone()method can now be called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system timezone.
The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly-rounded decimal floating point arithmetic. libmpdec conforms to IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification.
Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for numerically intensive applications. These numbers are expected gains for standard precisions used in decimal floating point arithmetic. Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary. For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be significantly higher.
The following table is meant as an illustration. Benchmarks are available at http://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html.
decimal.py _decimal speedup pi 42.02s 0.345s 120x telco 172.19s 5.68s 30x psycopg 3.57s 0.29s 12x
FloatOperation signal optionally enables stricter
semantics for mixing floats and Decimals.HAVE_THREADS is set to False.The C module has the following context limits, depending on the machine architecture:
32-bit 64-bit MAX_PREC425000000999999999999999999MAX_EMAX425000000999999999999999999MIN_EMIN-425000000-999999999999999999
In the context templates (DefaultContext,
BasicContext and ExtendedContext)
the magnitude of Emax and
Emin has changed to 999999.
The Decimal constructor in decimal.py does not observe
the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or precision
exactly. Since the C version has internal limits, the following scheme is
used: If possible, values are converted exactly, otherwise
InvalidOperation is raised and the result is NaN. In the
latter case it is always possible to use create_decimal()
in order to obtain a rounded or inexact value.
The power function in decimal.py is always correctly-rounded. In the
C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly-rounded
exp() and ln() functions,
but the final result is only “almost always correctly rounded”.
In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is a
MutableMapping. For speed reasons,
flags and traps always
refer to the same MutableMapping that the context
was initialized with. If a new signal dictionary is assigned,
flags and traps
are updated with the new values, but they do not reference the RHS
dictionary.
Pickling a Context produces a different output in order
to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions.
The order of arguments in the Context constructor has been
changed to match the order displayed by repr().
The watchexp parameter in the quantize() method
is deprecated.
The email package now has a policy framework. A
Policy is an object with several methods and properties
that control how the email package behaves. The primary policy for Python 3.3
is the Compat32 policy, which provides backward
compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2. A policy can be
specified when an email message is parsed by a parser, or when a
Message object is created, or when an email is
serialized using a generator. Unless overridden, a policy passed
to a parser is inherited by all the Message object and sub-objects
created by the parser. By default a generator will use the policy of
the Message object it is serializing. The default policy is
compat32.
The minimum set of controls implemented by all policy objects are:
max_line_length The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s), individual lines may have when a Messageis serialized. Defaults to 78.linesep The character used to separate individual lines when a Messageis serialized. Defaults to\n.cte_type 7bitor8bit.8bitapplies only to aBytesgenerator, and means that non-ASCII may be used where allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the original input).raise_on_defect Causes a parserto raise error when defects are encountered instead of adding them to theMessageobject’sdefectslist.
A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the
clone() method of policy objects. clone takes
any of the above controls as keyword arguments. Any control not specified in
the call retains its default value. Thus you can create a policy that uses
\r\n linesep characters like this:
mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n')
Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format needed by
your application simpler. Instead of having to remember to specify
linesep='\r\n' in all the places you call a generator, you can specify
it once, when you set the policy used by the parser or the Message,
whichever your program uses to create Message objects. On the other hand,
if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you can still specify the
parameters in the appropriate generator call. Or you can have custom
policy instances for your different cases, and pass those in when you create
the generator.
While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies that implement new features for the email package in a way that maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new policies. Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are releasing them in Python 3.3 as a provisional policy. Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code) may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers.
The new policies are instances of EmailPolicy,
and add the following additional controls:
refold_source Controls whether or not headers parsed by a parserare refolded by thegenerator. It can benone,long, orall. The default islong, which means that source headers with a line longer thanmax_line_lengthget refolded.nonemeans no line get refolded, andallmeans that all lines get refolded.header_factory A callable that take a nameandvalueand produces a custom header object.
The header_factory is the key to the new features provided by the new
policies. When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved from
a Message object is an object produced by the header_factory, and any
time you set a header on a Message it becomes an object produced by
header_factory. All such header objects have a name attribute equal
to the header name. Address and Date headers have additional attributes
that give you access to the parsed data of the header. This means you can now
do things like this:
>>> m = Message(policy=SMTP)
>>> m['To'] = 'Éric <foo@example.com>'
>>> m['to']
'Éric <foo@example.com>'
>>> m['to'].addresses
(Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),)
>>> m['to'].addresses[0].username
'foo'
>>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name
'Éric'
>>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime()
>>> m['Date'].datetime
datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT'))
>>> m['Date']
'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400'
>>> print(m)
To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as
utf-8 when the message is serialized, but that when the header is accessed
directly, you get the unicode version. This eliminates any need to deal with
the email.header decode_header() or
make_header() functions.
You can also create addresses from parts:
>>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'),
... Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]),
... Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')]
>>> print(m)
To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= <foo@example.com>
Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400
cc: pals: Bob <bob@example.com>, Sally <sally@example.com>;, Bonzo <bonz@laugh.com>
Decoding to unicode is done automatically:
>>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m))
>>> m2['to']
'Éric <foo@example.com>'
When you parse a message, you can use the addresses and groups
attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual
addresses:
>>> m2['cc'].addresses
(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'))
>>> m2['cc'].groups
(Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),))
In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings, and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.
New BytesHeaderParser, added to the parser
module to complement HeaderParser and complete the Bytes
API.
New utility functions:
format_datetime(): given adatetime, produce a string formatted for use in an email header.parsedate_to_datetime(): given a date string from an email header, convert it into an awaredatetime, or a naivedatetimeif the offset is-0000.localtime(): With no argument, returns the current local time as an awaredatetimeusing the localtimezone. Given an awaredatetime, converts it into an awaredatetimeusing the localtimezone.
ftplib.FTP now accepts a source_address keyword argument to
specify the (host, port) to use as the source address in the bind call
when creating the outgoing socket. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà
in bpo-8594.)FTP_TLS class now provides a new
ccc() function to revert control channel back to
plaintext. This can be useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how
to handle NAT with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports. (Contributed
by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139.)ftplib.FTP.mlsd() method which provides a parsable directory
listing format and deprecates ftplib.FTP.nlst() and
ftplib.FTP.dir(). (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072.)The functools.lru_cache() decorator now accepts a typed keyword
argument (that defaults to False to ensure that it caches values of
different types that compare equal in separate cache slots. (Contributed
by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227.)
It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage collector
before and after collection using the new callbacks list.
A new compare_digest() function has been added to prevent side
channel attacks on digests through timing analysis. (Contributed by Nick
Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061.)
http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler now buffers the headers and writes
them all at once when end_headers() is
called. A new method flush_headers()
can be used to directly manage when the accumlated headers are sent.
(Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in bpo-3709.)
http.server now produces valid HTML 4.01 strict output.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295.)
http.client.HTTPResponse now has a
readinto() method, which means it can be used
as an io.RawIOBase class. (Contributed by John Kuhn in
bpo-13464.)
html.parser.HTMLParser is now able to parse broken markup without
raising errors, therefore the strict argument of the constructor and the
HTMLParseError exception are now deprecated.
The ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes that
are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python 2.7/3.2.
(Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114, and bpo-14538,
bpo-13993, bpo-13960, bpo-13358, bpo-1745761,
bpo-755670, bpo-13357, bpo-12629, bpo-1200313,
bpo-670664, bpo-13273, bpo-12888, bpo-7311.)
A new html5 dictionary that maps HTML5 named character
references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g. html5['gt;'] ==
'>') has been added to the html.entities module. The dictionary is
now also used by HTMLParser. (Contributed by Ezio
Melotti in bpo-11113 and bpo-15156.)
The IMAP4_SSL constructor now accepts an SSLContext
parameter to control parameters of the secure channel.
(Contributed by Sijin Joseph in bpo-8808.)
A new getclosurevars() function has been added. This function
reports the current binding of all names referenced from the function body and
where those names were resolved, making it easier to verify correct internal
state when testing code that relies on stateful closures.
(Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13062.)
A new getgeneratorlocals() function has been added. This
function reports the current binding of local variables in the generator’s
stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing
generators.
(Contributed by Meador Inge in bpo-15153.)
The open() function has a new 'x' mode that can be used to
exclusively create a new file, and raise a FileExistsError if the file
already exists. It is based on the C11 ‘x’ mode to fopen().
(Contributed by David Townshend in bpo-12760.)
The constructor of the TextIOWrapper class has a new
write_through optional argument. If write_through is True, calls to
write() are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data
written on the TextIOWrapper object is immediately handled to its
underlying binary buffer.
accumulate() now takes an optional func argument for
providing a user-supplied binary function.
The basicConfig() function now supports an optional handlers
argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the root logger.
A class level attribute append_nul has
been added to SysLogHandler to allow control of the
appending of the NUL (\000) byte to syslog records, since for some
deamons it is required while for others it is passed through to the log.
The math module has a new function, log2(), which returns
the base-2 logarithm of x.
(Written by Mark Dickinson in bpo-11888.)
The read() method is now more compatible with other file-like
objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as None, it returns the
bytes from the current file position to the end of the mapping. (Contributed
by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021.)
The new multiprocessing.connection.wait() function allows polling
multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a timeout.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328.)
multiprocessing.Connection objects can now be transferred over
multiprocessing connections.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-4892.)
multiprocessing.Process now accepts a daemon keyword argument
to override the default behavior of inheriting the daemon flag from
the parent process (bpo-6064).
New attribute multiprocessing.Process.sentinel allows a
program to wait on multiple Process objects at one
time using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, select on
posix systems).
New methods multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap() and
starmap_async() provide
itertools.starmap() equivalents to the existing
multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map() and
map_async() functions. (Contributed by Hynek
Schlawack in bpo-12708.)
The nntplib.NNTP class now supports the context management protocol to
unconditionally consume socket.error exceptions and to close the NNTP
connection when done:
>>> from nntplib import NNTP
>>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n:
... n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers')
...
('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers')
>>>
(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-9795.)
The os module has a new pipe2() function that makes it
possible to create a pipe with O_CLOEXEC or
O_NONBLOCK flags set atomically. This is especially useful to
avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs.
The os module has a new sendfile() function which provides
an efficient “zero-copy” way for copying data from one file (or socket)
descriptor to another. The phrase “zero-copy” refers to the fact that all of
the copying of data between the two descriptors is done entirely by the
kernel, with no copying of data into userspace buffers. sendfile()
can be used to efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket,
e.g. for downloading a file.
(Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10882.)
To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names. Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761, bpo-10755 and bpo-14626).
os module has a new fwalk() function similar to
walk() except that it also yields file descriptors referring to the
directories visited. This is especially useful to avoid symlink races.access(), chflags(), chmod(), chown(),
link(), lstat(), mkdir(), mkfifo(),
mknod(), open(), readlink(), remove(),
rename(), replace(), rmdir(), stat(),
symlink(), unlink(), utime(). Platform
support for using these parameters can be checked via the sets
os.supports_dir_fd and os.supports_follows_symlinks.chdir(), chmod(), chown(),
execve(), listdir(), pathconf(), exists(),
stat(), statvfs(), utime(). Platform support
for this can be checked via the os.supports_fd set.access() accepts an effective_ids keyword argument to turn on
using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid in the access check.
Platform support for this can be checked via the
supports_effective_ids set.
The os module has two new functions: getpriority() and
setpriority(). They can be used to get or set process
niceness/priority in a fashion similar to os.nice() but extended to all
processes instead of just the current one.
(Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10784.)
The new os.replace() function allows cross-platform renaming of a
file with overwriting the destination. With os.rename(), an existing
destination file is overwritten under POSIX, but raises an error under
Windows.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8828.)
The stat family of functions (stat(), fstat(),
and lstat()) now support reading a file’s timestamps
with nanosecond precision. Symmetrically, utime()
can now write file timestamps with nanosecond precision. (Contributed by
Larry Hastings in bpo-14127.)
The new os.get_terminal_size() function queries the size of the
terminal attached to a file descriptor. See also
shutil.get_terminal_size().
(Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609.)
getxattr(), listxattr(), removexattr(),
setxattr().sched_get_priority_max(), sched_get_priority_min(),
sched_getaffinity(), sched_getparam(),
sched_getscheduler(), sched_rr_get_interval(),
sched_setaffinity(), sched_setparam(),
sched_setscheduler(), sched_yield(),posix_fadvise(): Announces an intention to access data in a
specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make optimizations.posix_fallocate(): Ensures that enough disk space is allocated
for a file.sync(): Force write of everything to disk.lockf(): Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor.pread(): Read from a file descriptor at an offset, the file
offset remains unchanged.pwrite(): Write to a file descriptor from an offset, leaving
the file offset unchanged.readv(): Read from a file descriptor into a number of writable buffers.truncate(): Truncate the file corresponding to path, so that
it is at most length bytes in size.waitid(): Wait for the completion of one or more child processes.writev(): Write the contents of buffers to a file descriptor,
where buffers is an arbitrary sequence of buffers.getgrouplist() (bpo-9344): Return list of group ids that
specified user belongs to.times() and uname(): Return type changed from a tuple to
a tuple-like object with named attributes.lseek()
function, such as os.SEEK_HOLE and os.SEEK_DATA.RTLD_LAZY, RTLD_NOW,
RTLD_GLOBAL, RTLD_LOCAL, RTLD_NODELETE,
RTLD_NOLOAD, and RTLD_DEEPBIND are available on
platforms that support them. These are for use with the
sys.setdlopenflags() function, and supersede the similar constants
defined in ctypes and DLFCN. (Contributed by Victor Stinner
in bpo-13226.)os.symlink() now accepts (and ignores) the target_is_directory
keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to ease cross-platform support.Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also their
arguments. For example, for the break command, function and file names
are completed.
(Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-14210)
pickle.Pickler objects now have an optional
dispatch_table attribute allowing per-pickler
reduction functions to be set.
(Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-14166.)
The Tk GUI and the serve() function have been removed from the
pydoc module: pydoc -g and serve() have been deprecated
in Python 3.2.
str regular expressions now support \u and \U escapes.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-3665.)
run() now accepts a blocking parameter which when
set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to expire
soonest (if any) and then return immediately.
This is useful in case you want to use the scheduler in
non-blocking applications. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-13449.)scheduler class can now be safely used in multi-threaded
environments. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and Giampaolo Rodolà in
bpo-8684.)scheduler class
constructor are now optional and defaults to time.time() and
time.sleep() respectively. (Contributed by Chris Clark in
bpo-13245.)enter() and enterabs()
argument parameter is now optional. (Contributed by Chris Clark in
bpo-13245.)enter() and enterabs()
now accept a kwargs parameter. (Contributed by Chris Clark in
bpo-13245.)Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class select.devpoll
for high performance asynchronous sockets via /dev/poll.
(Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397.)
The previously undocumented helper function quote from the
pipes modules has been moved to the shlex module and
documented. quote() properly escapes all characters in a string
that might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.
disk_usage(): provides total, used and free disk space
statistics. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12442.)chown(): allows one to change user and/or group of the given
path also specifying the user/group names and not only their numeric
ids. (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in bpo-12191.)shutil.get_terminal_size(): returns the size of the terminal window
to which the interpreter is attached. (Contributed by Zbigniew
Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609.)copy2() and copystat() now preserve file
timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it.
They also preserve file “extended attributes” on Linux. (Contributed
by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127 and bpo-15238.)symlinks argument: when that
parameter is true, symlinks aren’t dereferenced and the operation instead
acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if relevant).
(Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715.)move() now
handles symlinks the way the posix mv command does, recreating the
symlink rather than copying the target file contents. (Contributed by
Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993.) move() now also returns
the dst argument as its result.rmtree() is now resistant to symlink attacks on platforms
which support the new dir_fd parameter in os.open() and
os.unlink(). (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack
in bpo-4489.)signal module has new functions:pthread_sigmask(): fetch and/or change the signal mask of the
calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone in bpo-8407);pthread_kill(): send a signal to a thread;sigpending(): examine pending functions;sigwait(): wait a signal;sigwaitinfo(): wait for a signal, returning detailed
information about it;sigtimedwait(): like sigwaitinfo() but with a
timeout.signal.signal() and signal.siginterrupt() raise an OSError,
instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno attribute.The smtpd module now supports RFC 5321 (extended SMTP) and RFC 1870
(size extension). Per the standard, these extensions are enabled if and only
if the client initiates the session with an EHLO command.
(Initial ELHO support by Alberto Trevino. Size extension by Juhana
Jauhiainen. Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by Michele
Orrù and Dan Boswell. bpo-8739)
The SMTP, SMTP_SSL, and
LMTP classes now accept a source_address keyword argument
to specify the (host, port) to use as the source address in the bind call
when creating the outgoing socket. (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in
bpo-11281.)
SMTP now supports the context management protocol, allowing an
SMTP instance to be used in a with statement. (Contributed
by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11289.)
The SMTP_SSL constructor and the starttls()
method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure
channel. (Contributed by Kasun Herath in bpo-8809.)
The socket class now exposes additional methods to process
ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform:
(Contributed by David Watson in bpo-6560, based on an earlier patch by Heiko Wundram)
The socket class now supports the PF_CAN protocol family
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan), on Linux
(https://lwn.net/Articles/253425).
(Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in bpo-10141.)
The socket class now supports the PF_RDS protocol family
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets and
https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/).
The socket class now supports the PF_SYSTEM protocol
family on OS X. (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in bpo-13777.)
New function sethostname() allows the hostname to be set
on unix systems if the calling process has sufficient privileges.
(Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866.)
BaseServer now has an overridable method
service_actions() that is called by the
serve_forever() method in the service loop.
ForkingMixIn now uses this to clean up zombie
child processes. (Contributed by Justin Warkentin in bpo-11109.)
New sqlite3.Connection method
set_trace_callback() can be used to capture a trace of
all sql commands processed by sqlite. (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff
in bpo-11688.)
The ssl module has two new random generation functions:
RAND_bytes(): generate cryptographically strong
pseudo-random bytes.RAND_pseudo_bytes(): generate pseudo-random bytes.(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-12049.)
The ssl module now exposes a finer-grained exception hierarchy
in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds of errors.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183.)
load_cert_chain() now accepts a password argument
to be used if the private key is encrypted.
(Contributed by Adam Simpkins in bpo-12803.)
Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based, is
now supported through the load_dh_params() and
set_ecdh_curve() methods.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13626 and bpo-13627.)
SSL sockets have a new get_channel_binding() method
allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms such as
SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in bpo-12551.)
You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket, thanks
to its new compression() method. The new attribute
OP_NO_COMPRESSION can be used to disable compression.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634.)
Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension using
the ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols() method.
(Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204.)
SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to
library and reason attributes.
(Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837.)
The get_server_certificate() function now supports IPv6.
(Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811.)
New attribute OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE allows setting
SSLv3 server sockets to use the server’s cipher ordering preference rather
than the client’s (bpo-13635).
The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to
stat.filemode(). It can be used to convert a file’s mode to a string of
the form ‘-rwxrwxrwx’.
(Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-14807.)
The struct module now supports ssize_t and size_t via the
new codes n and N, respectively. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou
in bpo-3163.)
Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513.)
A new constant DEVNULL allows suppressing output in a
platform-independent fashion. (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in
bpo-5870.)
The sys module has a new thread_info struct
sequence holding informations about the thread implementation
(bpo-11223).
tarfile now supports lzma encoding via the lzma module.
(Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-5689.)
tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile‘s
truncate() method now accepts
a size parameter. (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957.)
The textwrap module has a new indent() that makes
it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block
of text (bpo-13857).
threading.Condition, threading.Semaphore,
threading.BoundedSemaphore, threading.Event, and
threading.Timer, all of which used to be factory functions returning a
class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed. (Contributed by Éric
Araujo in bpo-10968.)
The threading.Thread constructor now accepts a daemon keyword
argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the deamon flag
value from the parent thread (bpo-6064).
The formerly private function _thread.get_ident is now available as the
public function threading.get_ident(). This eliminates several cases of
direct access to the _thread module in the stdlib. Third party code that
used _thread.get_ident should likewise be changed to use the new public
interface.
The PEP 418 added new functions to the time module:
get_clock_info(): Get information on a clock.monotonic(): Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not affected
by system clock updates.perf_counter(): Performance counter with the highest available
resolution to measure a short duration.process_time(): Sum of the system and user CPU time of the
current process.Other new functions:
clock_getres(), clock_gettime() and
clock_settime() functions with CLOCK_xxx constants.
(Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-10278.)To improve cross platform consistency, sleep() now raises a
ValueError when passed a negative sleep value. Previously this was an
error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows.
Add a new types.MappingProxyType class: Read-only proxy of a mapping.
(bpo-14386)
The new functions types.new_class() and types.prepare_class() provide support
for PEP 3115 compliant dynamic type creation. (bpo-14588)
assertRaises(), assertRaisesRegex(), assertWarns(), and
assertWarnsRegex() now accept a keyword argument msg when used as
context managers. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in
bpo-10775.)
unittest.TestCase.run() now returns the TestResult
object.
The Request class, now accepts a method argument
used by get_method() to determine what HTTP method
should be used. For example, this will send a 'HEAD' request:
>>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD'))
The webbrowser module supports more “browsers”: Google Chrome (named
chrome, chromium, chrome-browser or
chromium-browser depending on the version and operating system),
and the generic launchers xdg-open, from the FreeDesktop.org
project, and gvfs-open, which is the default URI handler for GNOME
3. (The former contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620, the latter
by Matthias Klose in bpo-14493.)
The xml.etree.ElementTree module now imports its C accelerator by
default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import
xml.etree.cElementTree (this module stays for backwards compatibility,
but is now deprecated). In addition, the iter family of methods of
Element has been optimized (rewritten in C).
The module’s documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples
and a more detailed reference.
New attribute zlib.Decompress.eof makes it possible to distinguish
between a properly-formed compressed stream and an incomplete or truncated one.
(Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-12646.)
New attribute zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION reports the version string of
the underlying zlib library that is loaded at runtime. (Contributed by
Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306.)
Major performance enhancements have been added:
Thanks to PEP 393, some operations on Unicode strings have been optimized:
UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster. UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x faster.
(Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, bpo-14624, bpo-14738 and bpo-15026.)
Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include:
PyMemoryView_FromMemory()PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()PyUnicode_FindChar()PyUnicode_GetLength(), PyUnicode_GET_LENGTHPyUnicode_New()PyUnicode_Substring()PyUnicode_ReadChar(), PyUnicode_WriteChar()Py_UCS1, Py_UCS2, Py_UCS4 typesPyASCIIObject and PyCompactUnicodeObject structuresPyUnicode_READYPyUnicode_FromKindAndData()PyUnicode_AsUCS4(), PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy()PyUnicode_DATA, PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA,
PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA, PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATAPyUnicode_KIND with PyUnicode_Kind enum:
PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND, PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND,
PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND, PyUnicode_4BYTE_KINDPyUnicode_READ, PyUnicode_READ_CHAR, PyUnicode_WRITEPyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUEPyArg_ParseTuple now accepts a bytearray for the c
format (bpo-12380).OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer.
Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set COMSPEC to command.com
are no longer supported due to maintenance burden.
OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.
object.__format__() is deprecated, and
will produce a TypeError in Python 3.4 (bpo-9856).unicode_internal codec has been deprecated because of the
PEP 393, use UTF-8, UTF-16 (utf-16-le or utf-16-be), or UTF-32
(utf-32-le or utf-32-be)ftplib.FTP.nlst() and ftplib.FTP.dir(): use
ftplib.FTP.mlsd()platform.popen(): use the subprocess module. Check especially
the Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module section (bpo-11377).os
module. Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes filenames, to not depend on
the ANSI code page anymore and to support any filename.xml.etree.cElementTree module is deprecated. The
accelerator is used automatically whenever available.time.clock() depends on the platform: use the new
time.perf_counter() or time.process_time() function instead,
depending on your requirements, to have a well defined behaviour.os.stat_float_times() function is deprecated.abc module:abc.abstractproperty has been deprecated, use property
with abc.abstractmethod() instead.abc.abstractclassmethod has been deprecated, use
classmethod with abc.abstractmethod() instead.abc.abstractstaticmethod has been deprecated, use
staticmethod with abc.abstractmethod() instead.importlib package:importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime() is now deprecated in favour of
importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats() as bytecode files now store
both the modification time and size of the source file the bytecode file was
compiled from.The Py_UNICODE has been deprecated by PEP 393 and will be
removed in Python 4. All functions using this type are deprecated:
Unicode functions and methods using Py_UNICODE and
Py_UNICODE* types:
PyUnicode_FromUnicode: use PyUnicode_FromWideChar() or
PyUnicode_FromKindAndData()PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE, PyUnicode_AsUnicode(),
PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize(): use PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()PyUnicode_AS_DATA: use PyUnicode_DATA with
PyUnicode_READ and PyUnicode_WRITEPyUnicode_GET_SIZE, PyUnicode_GetSize(): use
PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH or PyUnicode_GetLength()PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE: use
PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) * PyUnicode_KIND(str) (only work on ready
strings)PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy(): use PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy() or
PyUnicode_AsWideCharString()PyUnicode_GetMax()Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings:
Py_UNICODE_strlen: use PyUnicode_GetLength() or
PyUnicode_GET_LENGTHPy_UNICODE_strcat: use PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() or
PyUnicode_FromFormat()Py_UNICODE_strcpy, Py_UNICODE_strncpy,
Py_UNICODE_COPY: use PyUnicode_CopyCharacters() or
PyUnicode_Substring()Py_UNICODE_strcmp: use PyUnicode_Compare()Py_UNICODE_strncmp: use PyUnicode_Tailmatch()Py_UNICODE_strchr, Py_UNICODE_strrchr: use
PyUnicode_FindChar()Py_UNICODE_FILL: use PyUnicode_Fill()Py_UNICODE_MATCHEncoders:
PyUnicode_Encode(): use PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8(): use PyUnicode_AsUTF8() or
PyUnicode_AsUTF8String()PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape:() use
PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString()PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape:() use
PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString()PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1(): use PyUnicode_AsLatin1String()PyUnicode_EncodeASCII(): use PyUnicode_AsASCIIString()PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS(): use PyUnicode_AsMBCSString() or
PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage() (with CP_ACP code_page)PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal(),
PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code.
PYTHONHASHSEED
environment variable to 0 to disable hash randomization. See also the
object.__hash__() method.time and datetime:
OverflowError is now raised instead of ValueError if a
timestamp is out of range. OSError is now raised if C functions
gmtime() or localtime() failed.importlib.invalidate_caches() to clear
out the cache for the finders to notice the new file.ImportError now uses the full name of the module that was attempted to
be imported. Doctests that check ImportErrors’ message will need to be
updated to use the full name of the module instead of just the tail of the
name.__import__() now defaults to 0 instead of -1
and no longer support negative values. It was an oversight when PEP 328 was
implemented that the default value remained -1. If you need to continue to
perform a relative import followed by an absolute import, then perform the
relative import using an index of 1, followed by another import using an
index of 0. It is preferred, though, that you use
importlib.import_module() rather than call __import__() directly.__import__() no longer allows one to use an index value other than 0
for top-level modules. E.g. __import__('sys', level=1) is now an error.sys.meta_path and sys.path_hooks now have finders on
them by default, you will most likely want to use list.insert() instead
of list.append() to add to those lists.None is now inserted into sys.path_importer_cache, if you
are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths that do not have a
finder, you will need to remove keys paired with values of None and
imp.NullImporter to be backwards-compatible. This will lead to extra
overhead on older versions of Python that re-insert None into
sys.path_importer_cache where it repesents the use of implicit
finders, but semantically it should not change anything.importlib.abc.Finder no longer specifies a find_module() abstract
method that must be implemented. If you were relying on subclasses to
implement that method, make sure to check for the method’s existence first.
You will probably want to check for find_loader() first, though, in the
case of working with path entry finders.pkgutil has been converted to use importlib internally. This
eliminates many edge cases where the old behaviour of the PEP 302 import
emulation failed to match the behaviour of the real import system. The
import emulation itself is still present, but is now deprecated. The
pkgutil.iter_importers() and pkgutil.walk_packages() functions
special case the standard import hooks so they are still supported even
though they do not provide the non-standard iter_modules() method.email.header.decode_header() has been fixed. Code that uses the
standard idiom to convert encoded headers into unicode
(str(make_header(decode_header(h))) will see no change, but code that
looks at the individual tuples returned by decode_header will see that
whitespace that precedes or follows ASCII sections is now included in the
ASCII section. Code that builds headers using make_header should
also continue to work without change, since make_header continues to add
whitespace between ASCII and non-ASCII sections if it is not already
present in the input strings.email.utils.formataddr() now does the correct content transfer
encoding when passed non-ASCII display names. Any code that depended on
the previous buggy behavior that preserved the non-ASCII unicode in the
formatted output string will need to be changed (bpo-1690608).poplib.POP3.quit() may now raise protocol errors like all other
poplib methods. Code that assumes quit does not raise
poplib.error_proto errors may need to be changed if errors on quit
are encountered by a particular application (bpo-11291).strict argument to email.parser.Parser, deprecated since
Python 2.4, has finally been removed.unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements has been
removed.time.accept2dyear has been removed.Context._clamp attribute has been removed from the
decimal module. It was previously replaced by the public attribute
clamp. (See bpo-8540.)SSLFakeFile has been removed
from smtplib, since its functionality has long been provided directly
by socket.socket.makefile().time.sleep() on Windows now raises an
error instead of sleeping forever. It has always raised an error on posix.ast.__version__ constant has been removed. If you need to
make decisions affected by the AST version, use sys.version_info
to make the decision.threading module used
factory functions by subclassing the private classes will need to change to
subclass the now-public classes.In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented
smalltable member of the
Py_buffer structure has been removed and the
layout of the PyMemoryViewObject has changed.
All extensions relying on the relevant parts in memoryobject.h
or object.h must be rebuilt.
Due to PEP 393, the Py_UNICODE type and all
functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available for
at least five years). If you were using low-level Unicode APIs to
construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of the
memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393, you have to convert
your code to the new Unicode API.
However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as
PyUnicode_Concat(), PyUnicode_Join() or
PyUnicode_FromFormat(), your code will automatically take
advantage of the new unicode representations.
PyImport_GetMagicNumber() now returns -1 upon failure.
As a negative value for the level argument to __import__() is no
longer valid, the same now holds for PyImport_ImportModuleLevel().
This also means that the value of level used by
PyImport_ImportModuleEx() is now 0 instead of -1.
The range of possible file names for C extensions has been narrowed.
Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under POSIX, files
named xxxmodule.so, xxxmodule.abi3.so and
xxxmodule.cpython-*.so are no longer recognized as implementing
the xxx module. If you had been generating such files, you have
to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the module string
from the file names).
(implemented in bpo-14040.)
The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed. Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating.
(bpo-10998, contributed by Éric Araujo.)
When python is started with -S, import site
will no longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths. In
previous versions, it did.
(bpo-11591, contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric Araujo.)